IKS/ Part 3· Town Planning and Architecture Chapter 12 of 14
Part 3 · Chapter 12

Town Planning and Architecture

वास्तुशास्त्रम्

Eight standard town plans, each with a stated shape, street pattern and intended use. A modular grid that scales from a single room to a capital city. A four-grade professional hierarchy with defined competences. Indian architecture is not a style; it is a design method, written down and applied.

1What vāstu-śāstra coversवास्तुविद्या

The term वास्तु (vāstu) is broader than “building”. Four things count as vāstu: the ground itself (bhūmi), the structure raised on it (prāsāda), conveyances (yāna), and furniture (śayana) — from the earth up to the couch on it.

The scope of vastu-sastra across five domains Town planning, civil architecture, temple architecture, artistic work, and professional matters. Town planning site selection design of villages,towns, capital cities land-use patterns —that is, zoning §§7–10 Civil architecture palaces houses forts public buildings: theatre, library,law court, gallery §11 Temple architecture temple types components and theirrelative placement iconography — themaking of images §§12–15 Artistic work painting sculpture furniture and doors Treated as part ofthe same discipline,not as decorationapplied afterwards. Professional matters qualifications ofthe sthapati choice of buildingmaterial, timber site planning bythe maṇḍala §§3–6
Note the last column. A discipline that specifies the qualifications of its practitioners and the criteria for selecting materials is a profession, not a set of conventions.
The premise, stated fairly

Vāstu's stated basis is that a structure should be aligned to the pañca-bhūta — the five elements of chapter 7 — so that design, construction and use are in accord with the natural forces of the site. Read literally that is a metaphysical claim. Read as design practice it produces mostly sensible outcomes: orientation to the sun and the prevailing wind, drainage away from the building, heavy masses to the south and west where the sun is harshest, openings to the north and east. Whether one accepts the reasoning, the resulting rules of thumb encode a great deal of climate response for the latitude.

2The textsवास्तुग्रन्थाः

TextWhat it covers
Kāśyapa-śilpaArchitecture and iconography; the building of temples and the rules for making images of deities
Nārada-śilpa-śāstraRoads, water resources, village and town planning, fourteen town types, fortification, palace complexes, interiors, superstructures, residences, furniture, law courts, an art gallery, a theatre, temples and iconography
Viśvakarma-prakāśaOrientation of sites; the men and materials to employ; examination of lands, regions and soils; levelling; placing the foundation box; planning of villages, towns, forts, roads, streets and lanes; temples, icons, arsenals, houses
MānasāraThe system of measurement; classification of architecture; examination and selection of soil; the ground plan (pāda-vinyāsa); village planning; towns and ports; pillars, entablature, roofing, wood joinery; buildings of one to twelve storeys
MayamataDwellings of gods and of men, from the choice of the site to the iconography of temple walls; villages, towns, temples, houses, mansions, palaces; orientation, dimensions, materials
Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāraTown planning, houses, temples, sculpture, mudrā, the canons of painting, and the art of mechanical contrivances (yantra); soil examination; units of measurement; the king's abode; the definition of door, pedestal and wall; wood planking; and a treatment of defective buildings
Manuṣyālaya-candrikāSeven chapters on domestic building: investigation and selection of land, site analysis, houses and their parts, roof elements, ancillary structures

Two features of this list are worth noticing. First, the same books treat town planning, buildings, furniture and image-making as one subject — the scale changes, the method does not. Second, the Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra includes a section on defective buildings: what goes wrong, how to recognise it, and what to do. A discipline that catalogues its own failure modes is a mature one.

3The vāstu-puruṣa-maṇḍalaवास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम्

Every design begins from the same object: a square grid laid over the site, with a defined centre and each cell assigned to a presiding force. It is the tradition's universal plan diagram.

The nine by nine vastu-purusa-mandala An 81-square grid with the Brahmasthana at its centre and the eight directional guardians around the edge. Brahma-sthāna ब्रह्मस्थान left open — the still centre N · Soma / Kubera S · Yama W · Varuṇa E · Indra NWVāyu NEĪśāna SWNirṛti SEAgni The idea The site is not treated as bare ground but as a body — the vāstu-puruṣa, lying face down within the square, head to the north-east. The full scheme assigns forty-five presiding deities to the cells; the eight directional guardians shown here are the ones that govern placement. What the centre is for The Brahma-sthāna is the most important square, and the rule is that it stays unbuilt. In a house it becomes a courtyard. Except where the whole building is the centre: in a temple, the garbhagṛha stands here. In a fortified capital, so does the king's palace. Why it works as a design tool A grid with a named centre and named edges gives every part of a plan a unique address. “Place the kitchen in the Agni quarter” is unambiguous, scale-independent, and can be conveyed verbally to a builder on site. It is the same reason modern architects work on a structural grid.
The kitchen in the south-east (Agni, fire) and the water store in the north-east (Īśāna) are the standard placements, and both are defensible on grounds having nothing to do with the deities: the south-east gets morning sun and the prevailing wind carries smoke away from the living quarters, while the north-east is the coolest corner.

4One grid, ten scalesपदविन्यासः

The same square is subdivided to whatever resolution the job needs, and each subdivision has a name.

Ten named subdivisions of the site grid From a single square through nine, sixteen, sixty-four and eighty-one squares up to a hundred, with the finest going to 1024. Sakala1 × 1 Pecaka2 × 2 = 4 Pīṭha3 × 3 = 9 Mahā-pīṭha4 × 4 = 16 Upa-pīṭha5 × 5 = 25 Ugra-pīṭha6 × 6 = 36 Sthaṇḍila7 × 7 = 49 Maṇḍūka8 × 8 = 64 Paramaśāyika9 × 9 = 81 Āsana10 × 10 = 100 The two workhorses Maṇḍūka (8 × 8) and Paramaśāyika (9 × 9) are the grids used most often, and the difference between them matters: · an odd grid has a single central square — good for a temple, where something must stand at the centre · an even grid has a central point, where lines cross — good for a town, where two main streets should meet And it goes further The series continues to 32 × 32 = 1,024 squares. Larger grids for towns and villages, smaller ones for individual buildings — a single modular system spanning four orders of magnitude in area, with the same rules of placement applying at every scale.

5The eight limbsवास्त्वष्टाङ्गम्

The eight limbs of vastu Client, architecture, craftsmen, land, offerings, site layout, materials and decoration, arranged around a centre. Vāstu eight limbs 1 · Yajamāna — the client The whole object is the dweller's satisfaction, peace and prosperity. 2 · Sthāpatya — design Structural design, specifications, cost estimation, style. 3 · Śilpin — the craftsmen Four grades of technician; see §6. 4 · Bhūmi — the land Suitability of the site; examination of the soil. 5 · Vāstoṣpati — the offerings Vāstu-pūjana and bali-dāna, opening the work. 6 · Pāda-vinyāsa — site layout Laying out the plan on the maṇḍala of §3. 7 · Vastu — materials Selection and processing of the materials required. 8 · Alaṅkaraṇa — finishing Interior and exterior design; and repairs and modifications.
Read as a project lifecycle: brief, design, team, site investigation, groundbreaking, setting out, procurement, and fit-out with a provision for maintenance. Modern practice adds contracts and permits; it does not add a stage.

6The four craftsmenचत्वारः शिल्पिनः

The four grades of building craftsman and their relationship Sthapati the master architect, Sutragrahin the draftsman, Taksaka the carver, and Vardhakin the joiner and finisher, with a guild labour pool. Sthapati स्थपतिः — the master architect Directs the work: knows the śāstras, chooses the materials, commands the labour. Must know measurement of time, space, area, mass and motion — and dik-sādhana, the finding of direction. Sūtragrāhinसूत्रग्राही The draftsman. Sets out the building on the ground using the cord (sūtra) — all measurement is his. The sthapati's disciple, often his son and successor, considered able to finish the project if needed. Takṣakaतक्षकः The carver. Works stone, wood and clay — the shaping of every element. Vardhakinवर्धकी The joiner and finisher. Assembles the carved parts and finishes their surfaces. Works closely with, and under, the takṣaka. Śilpi-saṅgha the guilds The labour pool, trained in their respective trades and responsible for the actual construction. Four qualities required Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra, ch. 44 Śāstra knowledge of the technicalliterature of the craft Karma practical experience inapplying it Prajñā intuitive insight andimaginative capacity Śīla right characterand conduct
The four qualities are a genuinely good statement of what makes a designer competent, and the ordering is deliberate: theory without practice is useless, practice without insight is repetition, and all three without character produce a person you cannot trust with a building.

7The hierarchy of placesग्रामनगरभेदाः

Town planning begins from the village, and the Arthaśāstra gives an administrative hierarchy built on multiples of villages.

The administrative hierarchy of settlements A village, then units of ten, two hundred, four hundred and eight hundred villages, each with its own headquarters. Grāmathe villagethe basic unit ×10local administrationsaṅgrahaṇa ×200district headquarterskārvaṭika ×400divisional headquartersdroṇamukha ×800provincial headquarterssthānīya — a fortress A country (rāṣṭra) is then a certain number of villages and towns. Note that the hierarchy is defined by how many villages a place administers — not by its own population. That is a functional classification, and it means the plan of a settlement follows from its administrative rank: a sthānīya must be fortified because eight hundred villages depend on it. Chapter 14 treats the administration that occupies these places.
Categories of settlement in the vāstu texts
CategoryDescription
RājadhānīThe capital: the king's principal residence, with a sabhā at the centre of the city
Paṭṭana / PuṭabhedanaA second royal residence, and a commercial centre
DroṇamukhaOn a riverbank, frequented by traders from distant places
DurgaA fortified town — twelve types of fort are distinguished
SthānīyaThe fortress at the centre of eight hundred villages
Śākhā-nagaraA subsidiary town
KārvaṭikaAt the centre of two hundred villages
KheṭaA smaller town, mainly of the labouring population
NigamaA market town, mainly of artisans
GrāmaSmaller than a nigama
Maṭha / VihāraA residential university settlement

8The eight town plansग्रामविन्यासः

The Mānasāra gives eight standard settlement layouts. Each has a name describing its shape, a specified street pattern, and a statement of what it is for.

The eight Manasara town plans Dandaka, Nandyavarta, Sarvatobhadra, Padmaka, Svastika, Prastara, Karmuka and Caturmukha, each drawn as a schematic plan. Daṇḍaka — “the staff” Parallel straight streets, one to five, crossing at right angles. 12 to 300 houses — the smallest type. For priests, sages, and those retiring from active life (vānaprastha). Nandyāvarta Square or oblong; one to five carriage roads plus a surrounding street. Inner roads have one footpath, the outer ones two — a stated hierarchy of pedestrian provision. Sarvatobhadra — “safe on all sides” Walled and ditched, with four large gates on the sides and gates at the corners. For places where multiple, unpredictable challenges may arise over time. Padmaka — “lotus” Length equals breadth; four to eight radial streets lined with houses. The enclosing wall may be circular, quadrangular, hexagonal or octagonal; gates at the four cardinal points. Svastika Two streets through the centre, with traversing streets turning clockwise. Temple at the centre; eight gates, two on each side. Outermost roads have a single row of houses, others a double row. Prastara — “the couch” The site divided into 4, 9 or 16 wards by a network of streets — “like a chessboard”. Walls and ditch, four principal gates and subsidiary ones at the corners. Jaipur was laid out on this pattern. the shore Kārmuka — “the bow” Semicircular. Two car streets and one principal street; one to five traverses. Specified for a seashore site — Poompuhar and Kāverippaṭṭinam are cited as examples. Caturmukha — “four faces” Four car streets on the four sides; two large streets crossing at right angles in the centre, dividing the site into four wards, each with four smaller roads. Specified for traders.
Hover any plan to isolate it. The striking thing is the last line of each entry: these are not eight aesthetic options but eight fit-for-purpose plans. A bow-shaped town for a coast, a chessboard for a trading city, a radial plan around a temple, a small linear settlement for people who want quiet. The Sarvatobhadra — walled, gated on every face and corner — is the plan for a place expecting trouble from any direction, and Chandigarh has been described as a modern instance of it.

9Kauṭilya's fortified cityदुर्गनिवेशः

The Arthaśāstra gives a complete zoning plan for a fortified capital: three royal roads each way, twelve gates, and every trade and function assigned to a quarter.

Zoning of a fortified capital after the Arthasastra A square city divided by three royal roads each way into sixteen blocks, with the palace at the centre and trades assigned by quarter. the palace at the Brahma-sthāna with the sabhā treasury,records brāhmaṇasand teachers brāhmaṇas,chief officials flower andfruit sellers artisans inwool, cotton perfumers,jewellers armourers,metalworkers granaries,stores workers inhide and leather cooks, cattleand horse keepers merchants,traders the cremationground, outside NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST The scheme Three royal roads east–west and three north–south, dividing the city into sixteen blocks with the palace at the centre. Twelve gates — three on each face, where a royal road meets the wall. Outside the wall: a moat, and beyond it the cremation ground and the tanneries. What the zoning is actually doing The allocations look like social ranking, and partly they are. But read them functionally: · noxious trades — tanning, cremation — are placed downwind and outside the wall · fire risks — metalworking, cooking — are grouped away from granaries · stores and armouries sit near the centre, defensible and quickly reached · markets sit on the roads to the gates, where the traffic is
Schematic, after Shamasastry's and Rangarajan's readings of Arthaśāstra 2.4. The allocations of quarters differ slightly between translations; the structure — orthogonal royal roads, twelve gates, central palace, functional zoning, noxious uses expelled beyond the wall — does not.

10Roads, by gradeमार्गभेदाः

The Viṣṇu-purāṇa (chapter 38) notes that vehicular streets (rathyā), avenues (vīthi) and footways (nṛṇāṃ mārgaḥ) were laid out separately. The Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra prescribes as many as thirty-four roads in a model town, running both east–west and north–south. And the widths are specified — in three grades each.

Road widths by class and grade Rajamarga at 36, 30 or 24 feet; maharathya at 18, 15 or 12; yanamarga at 6; janghapatha at four and a half, three and three quarters, or three feet. WIDTH IN FEET · BARS TO SCALE Rājamārgathe royal road 36 30 24 jyeṣṭha · madhya · kaniṣṭha —greatest, middling, least Mahārathyāthe highway 18 15 12 Yānamārgathe cart track 6 — the same in all three grades Jaṅghā-pathathe footpath 4½ · 3¾ · 3 Four functional classes, three grades each, applied according to the size and rank of the settlement — a road hierarchy in the modern sense, with widths fixed in advance rather than negotiated on site.

11Public buildingsसभामण्डपाः

The sabhā — a public assembly hall, usually within the palace complex — gets careful treatment, and the treatment is typological rather than descriptive.

Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra

Eight designs for a sabhā, differing in the arrangement of entrance halls, pillars and porches. The first five specify pillar counts up to thirty-six; the last three add corridors and further elements.

Mayamata, chapter 25

Nine types of hall, each with its length, breadth, and the number of main and peripheral pillars. Plus an extensive treatment of square and rectangular maṇḍapa pavilions: proportions, pillar height and diameter, decoration, and the arrangement of the pillars.

The same texts give designs for a theatre, an art gallery and a law court. The modern parallels are exact — a parliament chamber, a museum, a courtroom — and the design questions are the same ones: how many people, how do they see and hear each other, how do they enter and leave, and how is the space structured to reflect what happens in it.

12Anatomy of a templeप्रासादाङ्गानि

The named parts of a temple in elevation and plan Base, pillars, entablature, superstructure and finial in elevation; garbhagrha, mandapas and circumambulatory in plan. Adhiṣṭhāna — the base platform on which everything rests Stambha — the pillars; the basis of the elevation Prastara — the entablature; repeated for each storey Śikhara (north) or Vimāna (south) — the superstructure above the sanctum the cupola — called śikhara in South Indian usage Stūpī — the finial ELEVATION A temple may be one to twelve storeys in the Drāviḍa style, up to sixteen in the Nāgara. Only the ground floor is habitable; the rest is elevation. PLAN Garbhagṛha the womb — the sanctum placed on the Brahma-sthāna Prākāra — thecircumambulatory Ardha-maṇḍapa Mahā-maṇḍapa Mukha-maṇḍapa the approach Everything is placed in relation to the garbhagṛha, and the garbhagṛha is placed by the maṇḍala. A visitor moves inward through progressively smaller, darker, more enclosed spaces — a designed sequence.

13Nāgara and Drāviḍaनागरद्राविडौ

The northern and southern temple styles compared Nagara with a curvilinear sikhara, Dravida with a stepped pyramidal vimana and tall gateway towers. Nāgara — the northern style The śikhara curves inward in a convex profile, generated by a scheme of concentric rotating squares and circles. Crowned by an āmalaka, the ribbed disc, and a finial. Up to sixteen storeys. Khajurāho, Bhubaneswar, Modhera. Vimāna shapes are named: square (Vairāja), circular (Kailāsa), rectangular (Puṣpaka), elliptical (Māṇika), octagonal (Triviṣṭapa). Drāviḍa — the southern style gopuram The vimāna is a stepped pyramid of receding storeys, capped by a domed cupola. Tall gateway towers (gopuram) on the enclosure walls — often higher than the vimāna itself. Pillared halls of 108 to 1,008 columns; wide circumambulatories. Thanjāvūr, Madurai, Śrīraṅgam. Up to twelve storeys.
The names are geographic in origin but became technical: a Drāviḍa temple can be built in the north and often was, and Paṭṭadakal in Karnataka has both styles standing side by side — nine temples that are, in effect, an eighth-century architectural comparison exercise.

14Three buildingsत्रीणि प्रासादानि

Bṛhadīśvara temple, Thanjāvūr — c. 1010 CE

16 × 16the grid it is laid out on — padma-garbha-maṇḍala
≈63 mheight of the vimāna above the sanctum
≈60 kmdistance to the nearest granite source
1,000 yrstanding, with no significant settlement

The śikhara — the crowning dome — is traditionally given as some 25 tonnes, resting on a single granite block of about 80. How either was raised is not recorded; the standard account is a long earth ramp, and there is a village some kilometres away whose name is taken to preserve the memory of it.

The maṇḍapa has musical pillars: colonettes carved from the monolith and tuned to sound definite pitches (chapter 11).

The comparison that makes the point

Construction of the leaning tower of Pisa began in 1173 and it started to lean during building, because the ground could not carry the load. Thanjāvūr is older, far heavier, and has not moved. The difference is foundation engineering on a site with difficult soil, and it is invisible — which is why it goes unremarked.

Sun Temple, Konark, Odisha — c. 1250 CE

The Konark temple as a chariot A stone chariot with twenty-four carved wheels and seven horses, the wheels doubling as sundials. seven horses The temple is built as the chariot of Sūrya. Twenty-four wheels, each about 12 feet across — one for each pakṣa of the year (chapter 9). The wheels are working sundials: the spokes and the axle cast a shadow that reads the time.

The original vimāna is estimated at some 229 feet; it fell in 1837. The surviving structure was oriented so that the first light from the sea would pass through the Naṭa-mandira, the dancing hall, and strike a stone at the crown of the image.

The design encodes chapter 9's astronomy in stone. To build it, someone had to know the sun's declination range at that latitude, the geometry of a shadow clock, and how to carve a working gnomon into a decorative wheel.

Kailāsa temple, Ellora — Cave 16, 8th century CE

How the Kailasa temple was excavated Two long trenches cut down through a basalt hill and joined by a third, leaving a central block from which the temple was carved downward. trench, 90 m trench, 90 m connecting trench, 53 m what remained — carved into the temple The carvers began at the top of a sloping basalt hill and worked downward, cutting away 200,000 tonnes of rock to leave a 32-metre structure that appears to rise from the ground.

The largest rock-cut structure anywhere, built under the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Kṛṣṇa I. It has a three-storeyed vimāna with an octagonal dome, two free-standing columns (dhvaja-stambha) flanking the maṇḍapa, and sixteen columns set in groups of four.

Why the direction matters

Top-down excavation means every decision is irreversible and the work cannot be checked against a model as it proceeds — you cannot add stone back. The finished plan must therefore be held complete in the mind or on a drawing before the first cut, and the setting-out must be exact at every level as it descends. It is the hardest possible way to make a building, and the reason for it is structural: there is no scaffolding, no lifting, and no joints.

15Iconographyप्रतिमालक्षणम्

Image-making is treated in the same texts, by the same method: a system of proportions applied at a defined scale.

The vāstu texts give exact relative proportions for the parts of a figure — eyes, ears, chin, neck, forehead, limbs — separately for male and female images. Varāhamihira, in the Bṛhat-saṃhitā, lays out five principal heights and lengths for a standard male figure, with corresponding measurements for the female.

Proportional canon for a figure A standing figure with its height divided into equal parts, each named element measured as a fraction of the whole. 1234 5678 What a proportional canon does Fix the total height; every other dimension follows as a stated fraction of it. A sculptor can then produce a figure of any size, consistent with every other figure in the programme, without measuring against a model — and different sculptors can carve different figures for the same wall and have them agree. The same logic, three times over · A town is laid out on the maṇḍala grid (§4) · A ship is laid out from its length by fixed ratios (chapter 11) · An image is laid out from its height by fixed fractions One design philosophy — proportional, modular, scale-independent — applied at every scale from a city to a statuette.
Schematic, showing an eight-part division; the canons specify considerably finer subdivisions, in units of the face-length or the finger. The tradition of these measurements has been continuous — image-makers in Tamil Nadu and Odisha still work to them.

16Self-checkपरीक्षा

Check your reading

1 · What is the Brahma-sthāna, and what is normally done with it?

A grid with a named centre and named edges gives every part of a plan a unique, scale-independent address.

2 · Why does the choice between an 8 × 8 and a 9 × 9 grid matter?

A geometric consequence with a planning implication, and the texts use both accordingly.

3 · What distinguishes the eight Mānasāra town plans from one another?

They are fit-for-purpose plans, not aesthetic options, and each entry states what it is for.

4 · What are the four qualities the Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra requires of a sthapati?

Theory, practice, imagination and integrity — the fourth being the one most modern professional codes also insist on.

5 · Why is the top-down excavation of the Kailāsa temple the hardest possible method?

The absence of scaffolding, lifting and joints is precisely the advantage that pays for the difficulty.

Questions worth arguing about

Is vāstu-śāstra prescriptive metaphysics or applied climatology?

The texts give a metaphysical justification, and the rules produce good climate-responsive buildings for the latitude. Both facts are true, and the interesting question is which is doing the work. One test: where the metaphysics and the climate would recommend different things, which does the tradition follow? The evidence is mixed, and the honest position is that the rules encode accumulated practical experience within a metaphysical framework — the framework being how the experience was transmitted and legitimated.

Does a modular grid constrain creativity or enable it?

Look at what was produced within it. Khajurāho, Konark and Thanjāvūr are all laid out on the same kind of grid and none of them resembles the others. The modular system settles the questions that do not need to be argued about every time — where things go, how big they are relative to each other — and frees attention for the ones that do. It is the same argument made for a structural grid, a musical scale, or a metre in poetry.

What was lost when this became “vāstu” in the popular modern sense?

Most of it. Contemporary vāstu consulting typically retains the directional prescriptions and discards the rest — the site investigation, the proportional system, the settlement typology, the professional grades, the treatment of defective buildings, the road hierarchy. What survives is the part that requires no training and can be sold as a checklist. The texts of §2 contain a design discipline; the popular form is a residue of it.

17Glossaryशब्दकोशः

IASTDevanāgarīSense
adhiṣṭhānaअधिष्ठानThe base platform of a temple.
brahma-sthānaब्रह्मस्थानThe central square of the maṇḍala.
garbhagṛhaगर्भगृह“Womb-house”: the sanctum.
gopuramगोपुरम्A gateway tower on a temple enclosure, characteristic of the Drāviḍa style.
maṇḍapaमण्डपA pillared pavilion.
nāgara / drāviḍaनागर / द्राविडThe northern and southern temple styles.
pāda-vinyāsaपदविन्यासSetting out the plan on the grid.
prākāraप्राकारThe circumambulatory enclosure.
prāsādaप्रासादA temple or palace.
prastaraप्रस्तरThe entablature; also the chessboard town plan.
śikhara / vimānaशिखर / विमानThe superstructure over the sanctum — northern and southern usage differ.
śilpīशिल्पीA craftsman; the four grades are sthapati, sūtragrāhin, takṣaka, vardhakin.
stambhaस्तम्भA pillar.
sthapatiस्थपतिThe master architect.
stūpīस्तूपीThe finial.
vāstu-puruṣa-maṇḍalaवास्तुपुरुषमण्डलThe square site grid with its presiding forces.
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